Neurological Psychologist: Bridging the Gap Between Neurology and Psychology

DR. SAID ABIDI

➼ Exploring the Role and Impact of a Neurological Psychologist (Neuropsychologist)

The human brain is an intricate organ, and its complexity is reflected in the vast range of cognitive and emotional functions it governs. When the brain is affected by injury, disease, or disorder, it can lead to significant challenges in behavior, memory, attention, and other cognitive abilities. This is where a Neuropsychologist (also known as a Neurological Psychologist) comes into play. These specialists are experts in understanding the intricate relationship between brain functions and behavior, using their knowledge to assess, diagnose, and treat various neurological conditions.

Neurological Psychologist: Bridging the Gap Between Neurology and Psychology

A Neuropsychologist works with individuals facing a range of neurological issues, from traumatic brain injuries to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. Through advanced neuropsychological assessments, they evaluate cognitive impairments and help patients regain lost functions or develop coping strategies. Whether known as clinical neuropsychologists, neurological psychologists, or brain-behavior specialists, these professionals play a critical role in improving the quality of life for those affected by brain-related conditions.

In this article, we will delve into the vital work of a Neuropsychologist, exploring their responsibilities, how they differ from other professionals in the medical and psychological fields, and the growing importance of Neuropsychology in diagnosing and treating cognitive impairments. We will also highlight the evolution of this field, providing a comprehensive overview of its history, key practices, and future directions.

➼ 1. What Does a Neurological Psychologist (Neuropsychologist) Do?

A Neurological Psychologist, also referred to as a Neuropsychologist, is a professional who specializes in understanding the connection between brain function and behavior. These specialists focus on how brain injuries, diseases, or other neurological conditions affect a person’s cognitive processes, emotions, and behavior. Neuropsychologists assess, diagnose, and treat cognitive and psychological issues related to the brain's structure and functioning.

In their daily practice, Neuropsychologists use a variety of assessments and tests to evaluate cognitive functions such as memory, attention, language, and decision-making. They work closely with patients who have experienced neurological injuries, stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI), epilepsy, and various neurodegenerative diseases. Based on their evaluations, Neuropsychologists create personalized treatment plans aimed at improving or compensating for cognitive impairments, guiding patients through rehabilitation to regain lost cognitive abilities, and helping manage the psychological consequences of neurological conditions.

What is a Neuropsychologist?

A Neuropsychologist is a licensed psychologist who focuses on studying and treating brain-related cognitive and emotional conditions. These specialists are trained to understand how various parts of the brain influence behaviors, emotions, memory, and cognitive functions. Their primary role is to assess the mental and cognitive consequences of brain injuries, disorders, or diseases. This expertise allows them to conduct detailed evaluations, diagnosing conditions such as memory loss, attention problems, and motor skill issues.

The field of Neuropsychology lies at the intersection of neuroscience and psychology, making Neuropsychologists highly skilled in understanding the complex ways in which brain damage or disease affects mental health. They typically work in clinical settings but may also be involved in research or academic roles.

Difference Between a Neuropsychologist and a Clinical Neuropsychologist

The terms Neuropsychologist and Clinical Neuropsychologist are often used interchangeably, but there are subtle distinctions between the two.

A Neuropsychologist broadly refers to anyone who studies the relationships between the brain and behavior. This includes researchers, educators, and clinicians who work with cognitive functions and neurological conditions. On the other hand, a Clinical Neuropsychologist is specifically trained to assess and treat individuals with cognitive impairments due to neurological conditions. While all Clinical Neuropsychologists are Neuropsychologists, not all Neuropsychologists are clinical professionals. Clinical Neuropsychologists undergo extensive training in both clinical assessment and therapeutic interventions, making them experts in providing personalized care for patients with conditions like stroke, traumatic brain injury, dementia, and other neurological disorders.

Difference Between a Neuropsychologist and a Neurologist

Though both Neuropsychologists and Neurologists specialize in brain-related conditions, they differ in their focus and expertise.

A Neurologist is a medical doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases and disorders related to the brain, spinal cord, and nervous system. Neurologists focus on the medical and physiological aspects of brain function, dealing with conditions such as epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, strokes, and multiple sclerosis. They primarily use medical treatments, including medications and surgeries, to manage neurological conditions.

In contrast, a Neuropsychologist is a psychologist who specializes in assessing how brain-related disorders affect cognitive and emotional functioning. Neuropsychologists use neuropsychological testing to assess areas such as memory, attention, language, and executive function. They focus on diagnosing and treating cognitive deficits resulting from brain damage, but they do not prescribe medications or perform surgeries like Neurologists. Their therapeutic role involves creating strategies for improving or compensating for cognitive impairments, often through cognitive rehabilitation and therapy.

The History and Evolution of Neuropsychology as a Field

The field of Neuropsychology has evolved significantly over the past century, transforming from a niche scientific discipline into a critical area of clinical practice. Historically, Neuropsychology emerged as researchers and clinicians began to explore the effects of brain injuries on cognitive functions. Early studies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly the work of pioneers like Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke, laid the foundation for understanding the relationship between specific brain areas and cognitive functions such as speech and memory.

In the mid-20th century, the development of neuroimaging techniques like CT scans and MRIs allowed Neuropsychologists to examine the structure of the brain in greater detail, leading to significant advancements in understanding how brain injuries and neurological diseases affect cognition. The 1980s and 1990s saw further growth in the field with the advent of functional neuroimaging, such as PET and fMRI scans, which enabled researchers to observe brain activity in real-time.

Today, Neuropsychology is a well-established field that combines psychology, neuroscience, and medicine. It is integral in diagnosing and treating conditions like traumatic brain injury, dementia, and stroke, while also contributing to advancements in cognitive rehabilitation and neuroplasticity research. The continuous growth of technology, particularly in the realms of artificial intelligence and precision medicine, promises to further shape the future of Neuropsychology, offering more precise diagnoses and personalized treatment options for patients with neurological and cognitive disorders.

Neurological Psychologist: Bridging the Gap Between Neurology and Psychology

➼ Synonyms and Alternative Titles for Neuropsychologists: Understanding the Terminology

The term Neurological Psychologist is used interchangeably with several other titles in both clinical and academic settings. These alternative titles help clarify the specific roles and specializations of professionals in this field, while also emphasizing different areas of expertise. Understanding these synonyms helps to appreciate the diversity within the field of neuropsychology.

Neurocognitive Psychologist

A Neurocognitive Psychologist is a professional who specializes in understanding how cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and problem-solving are affected by brain structure and neurological conditions. This title highlights the focus on cognitive abilities, often used in academic research and clinical assessments of brain function.

Brain-Behavior Specialist

This title emphasizes the relationship between brain functions and observable behaviors. Brain-Behavior Specialists are focused on studying how neurological conditions manifest as changes in behavior. This title is commonly used for professionals who work with patients showing behavioral changes due to brain damage, injury, or disease.

Psychologist Specializing in Neurological Disorders

This title refers to Neuropsychologists who are particularly focused on diagnosing and treating patients with neurological conditions, including dementia, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and other neurological diseases. Their work often involves comprehensive assessments and the creation of tailored treatment plans.

Behavioral Neuroscientist

A Behavioral Neuroscientist shares a common interest with Neuropsychologists in understanding how brain activity influences behavior. However, while Neuropsychologists often work in clinical settings to assess and treat patients, Behavioral Neuroscientists are more likely to be engaged in research that explores the neural underpinnings of behavior.

Cognitive Neuroscientist

A Cognitive Neuroscientist studies the brain processes that underlie cognitive functions. Although their research is similar to that of Neuropsychologists, they tend to focus more on experimental and theoretical research, exploring how different areas of the brain contribute to memory, perception, decision-making, and language.

Medical Psychologist with Neurological Expertise

This term refers to Neuropsychologists who integrate psychological principles with medical expertise to treat neurological patients. These professionals often collaborate with other healthcare providers to manage conditions such as stroke, epilepsy, and other neurological diseases.

Neuroscientific Psychologist

A Neuroscientific Psychologist utilizes both neuroscience and psychology to better understand and treat psychological disorders that have a neurological basis. This term emphasizes the scientific approach to understanding the connections between brain function and mental health issues.

These alternative titles illustrate the wide-ranging applications and specializations within the field of neuropsychology, with each title reflecting a slightly different emphasis in terms of research, treatment, and diagnostic practices.

➼ Educational Path and Training for Aspiring Neuropsychologists

The road to becoming a Neurological Psychologist is long and challenging, requiring extensive education and specialized training. Neuropsychologists typically undergo years of academic study and practical experience to gain the knowledge and skills needed to diagnose and treat complex neurological conditions. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the educational path to becoming a Neuropsychologist:

Undergraduate Education

Aspiring Neuropsychologists typically begin their education with a bachelor’s degree in psychology, neuroscience, or a related field. During their undergraduate studies, students are introduced to foundational concepts in psychology, biology, and neuroscience. Many students also participate in research internships or volunteer work in clinical settings to gain practical experience early in their careers.

Graduate Education (Master’s or Doctoral Degree)

After completing a bachelor’s degree, individuals who wish to become Neuropsychologists usually pursue graduate education at the master's or doctoral level. The most common route is earning a PhD or PsyD in clinical psychology, with a specialization in neuropsychology. These programs focus on advanced topics such as brain anatomy, neuroimaging, neuropsychological assessments, cognitive neuroscience, and clinical diagnostics. Graduate programs also require students to conduct original research, often involving clinical populations.

Postdoctoral Training and Supervised Experience

Many Neuropsychologists go on to complete postdoctoral training, which is essential for gaining expertise in clinical neuropsychology. Postdoctoral programs provide in-depth experience in administering neuropsychological assessments, working with patients, and understanding the neurobiological bases of mental health disorders. These programs also offer the opportunity to collaborate with other professionals in multidisciplinary teams.

Certification and Licensure

In order to practice as a Neuropsychologist, individuals must obtain licensure, which varies by region. In the United States, this involves passing examinations and obtaining certification from organizations such as the American Board of Clinical Neuropsychology (ABCN). Certification ensures that professionals are recognized as experts in neuropsychology and have met stringent requirements for education, experience, and knowledge.

➼ Career Opportunities and Work Settings for Neuropsychologists (Clinical Neuropsychologists)

Neuropsychologists, also referred to as Clinical Neuropsychologists, are employed in a variety of professional settings. The versatility of this field allows Neuropsychologists to work in hospitals, private practices, rehabilitation centers, and academic institutions. Below are some of the most common settings where Neuropsychologists can be found:

Hospitals and Medical Centers

Neuropsychologists often work in hospitals, where they provide critical assessments for patients who have experienced brain injuries, strokes, or neurological diseases. Working alongside neurologists, neurosurgeons, and psychiatrists, Neuropsychologists help diagnose cognitive impairments, develop treatment plans, and guide rehabilitation efforts. They play a crucial role in evaluating the impact of neurological conditions on patients’ cognitive functions and behavior.

Rehabilitation Centers

In rehabilitation centers, Neuropsychologists assist patients recovering from traumatic brain injuries, strokes, or other neurological events. Their role involves cognitive rehabilitation, helping patients regain lost skills and adapt to cognitive deficits. They provide therapeutic exercises and strategies aimed at improving memory, attention, language, and executive functioning.

Private Practice

Some Neuropsychologists choose to operate in private practice, where they have the flexibility to specialize in specific conditions, such as pediatric neuropsychology, forensic neuropsychology, or geriatric neuropsychology. Working in private practice allows for a personalized approach to treatment, and it can also provide opportunities for greater professional autonomy.

Academic and Research Institutions

Many Neuropsychologists contribute to the field through academic and research roles. In universities and research institutions, they study various aspects of brain function and cognitive neuroscience. Their research often explores topics like neuroplasticity, cognitive rehabilitation techniques, and the effects of neurological diseases on behavior and cognition.

Forensic Settings

Neuropsychologists may also work in forensic settings, where they assess individuals involved in legal cases. For example, they may evaluate the cognitive and emotional impact of brain injuries on a defendant's competency to stand trial or assess the mental state of a person involved in a criminal investigation. Their assessments can provide valuable information for legal decision-making.

➼ Neuropsychological Assessment: Tools and Techniques Used by Neuropsychologists

The cornerstone of Neuropsychology is the neuropsychological assessment, a process that allows Neuropsychologists to evaluate a patient's cognitive functions and understand the underlying neurological causes of any impairments. Several tools and techniques are commonly used in neuropsychological assessments:

Standardized Neuropsychological Tests

Neuropsychologists use a variety of standardized tests to assess cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, problem-solving, and executive function. Tests like the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery provide objective measures that help clinicians understand how a patient's brain injury or disease is affecting cognitive performance.

Neuroimaging Techniques

While Neuropsychologists do not typically perform neuroimaging themselves, they rely heavily on techniques like MRI, CT scans, and fMRI to gain insights into the brain’s structure and function. These tools allow Neuropsychologists to correlate observed cognitive deficits with specific areas of brain damage or dysfunction.

Cognitive and Behavioral Observations

In addition to standardized testing, Neuropsychologists observe patients' behavior during assessments. These observations can provide critical context for understanding how brain dysfunction manifests in behavior and cognition. They may also use interviews and questionnaires to gather information on mood, motivation, and other emotional aspects that influence cognition.

Technological Advancements in Assessments

With advancements in technology, Neuropsychologists now use computerized assessment tools to evaluate brain function. These digital tools allow for more precise and efficient testing of cognitive abilities and offer objective data that can be used to track changes over time.

➼ Therapeutic Approaches by Neuropsychologists and Clinical Neuropsychologists

In addition to diagnostic work, many Neuropsychologists are involved in the therapeutic process, helping patients manage and overcome the challenges posed by neurological disorders. These therapeutic interventions are often tailored to the specific needs of the patient:

Cognitive Rehabilitation Therapy (CRT)

Cognitive Rehabilitation Therapy is one of the key therapeutic approaches used by Neuropsychologists to help individuals regain cognitive skills lost due to neurological damage. CRT involves targeted exercises and strategies that improve specific cognitive functions, such as memory, attention, and executive functions. The goal is to help patients adapt to their cognitive deficits and improve their quality of life.

Psychotherapy

Many Neuropsychologists provide psychotherapy for patients coping with the emotional and psychological effects of neurological conditions. These conditions, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI) or neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, can lead to emotional challenges like depression, anxiety, or feelings of isolation. Neuropsychologists use therapeutic techniques such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) or Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) to help patients cope with the emotional impact of their cognitive impairments, thus improving their overall mental well-being.

Neurofeedback

An emerging treatment modality within the field of Neuropsychology is neurofeedback, a form of biofeedback that trains individuals to regulate their brain activity. Neuropsychologists use real-time brain wave data to teach patients how to control certain types of brain activity that may be contributing to disorders like anxiety, ADHD, or even PTSD. By enhancing self-regulation, patients may experience improved cognitive performance and emotional stability.

Family Counseling and Support

Dealing with neurological conditions often requires a team effort, and Neuropsychologists frequently involve family members in the therapeutic process. Family counseling can help loved ones understand the challenges associated with brain disorders and provide strategies to support the patient in daily life. For instance, family members may learn how to assist with memory retention or help patients adhere to rehabilitation strategies.

➼ Ethical and Legal Considerations for Neuropsychologists (Clinical and Medical)

As with any healthcare profession, Neuropsychologists are bound by strict ethical and legal guidelines to ensure patient care is conducted with respect, integrity, and professionalism. The following are some of the key ethical and legal considerations they must adhere to:

Confidentiality and Privacy

Confidentiality is paramount in Neuropsychology. Neuropsychologists must ensure that all patient information, including test results, diagnosis, and treatment plans, is kept confidential. This is especially critical in cases involving sensitive medical data, such as diagnoses of neurodegenerative diseases, brain injuries, or psychiatric disorders. Adhering to laws like HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) in the U.S. ensures the privacy and protection of patient information.

Informed Consent

Before conducting any assessments or therapy, Neuropsychologists must obtain informed consent from patients. This involves explaining the purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits of the tests or therapies being proposed. Informed consent ensures that patients understand their rights and make decisions based on clear and transparent information.

Legal Implications

Neuropsychologists are often called upon in forensic settings, where they assess cognitive function in individuals involved in legal cases. They may evaluate a defendant’s competency to stand trial or assess how brain injury may have influenced behavior in criminal cases. Neuropsychologists must navigate both psychological and legal principles to provide accurate, unbiased testimony in court, making their work highly impactful in the justice system.

➼ Research and Future of Neuropsychology: Advancements in Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience

The field of Neuropsychology is dynamic and continually evolving, with ongoing advancements in research and technology. The following are some of the promising directions for future research and practice:

Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to reorganize and form new neural connections in response to injury or disease, is a key area of interest in Neuropsychology. Researchers are exploring how neuroplasticity can be harnessed to help patients recover lost cognitive functions. This research is particularly promising for patients who have suffered strokes, traumatic brain injuries, or neurodegenerative diseases, offering hope for improved rehabilitation strategies.

Artificial Intelligence and Neuropsychology

Artificial intelligence (AI) is playing an increasingly significant role in Neuropsychology. AI is being used to enhance diagnostic accuracy, predict patient outcomes, and personalize treatment plans. By analyzing large datasets from neuroimaging, genetic tests, and patient histories, AI can provide insights that help Neuropsychologists identify patterns that might otherwise go unnoticed.

Precision Medicine

Precision medicine, an approach that tailors medical treatment to individual characteristics, is an exciting frontier in Neuropsychology. Advances in genomics and neurobiology are enabling Neuropsychologists to personalize interventions based on a patient’s unique genetic makeup, brain structure, and response to treatment. This allows for more effective treatments and better long-term outcomes, especially for patients with complex neurological conditions.

➼ Real-Life Applications of Neuropsychologists in Clinical Practice

The skills of Neuropsychologists are applied in various real-world clinical settings, where they help patients manage and recover from neurological conditions. These applications demonstrate the importance of Neuropsychologists in enhancing the quality of life for individuals facing cognitive challenges:

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

One of the most common areas where Neuropsychologists make an impact is in the treatment and rehabilitation of individuals who have suffered a Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). TBIs can result from accidents, falls, or sports injuries and often lead to cognitive impairments such as memory loss, difficulty concentrating, and mood changes. Neuropsychologists work with these patients to assess the extent of their cognitive deficits and provide strategies for cognitive rehabilitation, such as memory exercises and attention training.

Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease

Neuropsychologists are crucial in the diagnosis and management of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Through detailed neuropsychological assessments, they can identify early cognitive changes that may indicate the onset of dementia. By understanding the pattern of cognitive decline, Neuropsychologists are able to develop individualized treatment plans that include cognitive exercises, strategies to improve daily function, and therapies to support emotional well-being.

Stroke Rehabilitation

After a stroke, patients often experience changes in cognitive and motor functions. Neuropsychologists play a key role in stroke rehabilitation, conducting assessments to identify areas of cognitive impairment and helping to design rehabilitation programs that address specific deficits, such as language difficulties or memory loss. They also collaborate with other healthcare professionals to ensure a comprehensive approach to recovery.

Pediatric Neuropsychology

In pediatric settings, Neuropsychologists work with children who have neurological conditions such as autism, epilepsy, or learning disabilities. They use assessments tailored for children to evaluate cognitive and behavioral functioning, which can guide interventions and support strategies for both the child and their family. Pediatric Neuropsychologists play a key role in diagnosing developmental disorders and helping children overcome academic and social challenges.

➼ The Essential Role of Neuropsychologists in Brain Health

In conclusion, Neuropsychologists (or Neurological Psychologists) are crucial professionals who bridge the gap between the brain and behavior. Their expertise in understanding how neurological conditions affect cognitive and emotional functions allows them to provide invaluable support to individuals facing a wide range of brain-related challenges. Whether through comprehensive neuropsychological assessments, targeted rehabilitation strategies, or psychotherapy, Neuropsychologists play an integral role in improving the lives of their patients.

As the field of Neuropsychology continues to evolve with advancements in technology and research, the impact of these professionals is expected to grow, offering even more precise and personalized treatments for cognitive impairments. From trauma recovery to managing neurodegenerative diseases, Neuropsychologists are at the forefront of helping patients navigate the complexities of brain health and enhance their quality of life. As we move forward, the ongoing development of this field will undoubtedly bring more groundbreaking insights into the intricate relationship between the brain and human behavior, benefiting countless individuals worldwide.

 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What is the role of a Neuropsychologist?

A Neuropsychologist is a specialist who evaluates and treats cognitive and emotional issues related to neurological conditions, such as brain injuries, neurodegenerative diseases, and mental health disorders. They use a variety of assessments to diagnose cognitive impairments and develop treatment plans to improve brain function and behavior.

 How does a Neuropsychologist differ from a Neurologist?

While both Neuropsychologists and Neurologists deal with brain-related conditions, their focus differs. Neurologists are medical doctors who diagnose and treat physical diseases of the brain and nervous system using medical interventions like medications or surgery. In contrast, Neuropsychologists assess cognitive functions and treat psychological or emotional challenges resulting from neurological conditions but do not prescribe medications or perform surgeries.

⇛ What are the most common conditions treated by a Neuropsychologist?

Neuropsychologists treat a wide range of conditions, including:

  • Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
  • Stroke
  • Alzheimer's disease and other dementias
  • Epilepsy
  • Parkinson's disease
  • Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
  • Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

They also help manage the cognitive and emotional impacts of these conditions through specialized therapies.

⇛ Do Neuropsychologists prescribe medications?

No, Neuropsychologists do not prescribe medications. Their role is to assess and treat cognitive and emotional issues related to neurological conditions. If a medication is required, they may work with a Neurologist or psychiatrist who can prescribe the appropriate treatment.

⇛ How does a Neuropsychologist diagnose a condition?

A Neuropsychologist typically uses a combination of interviews, cognitive testing, and sometimes neuroimaging techniques to assess brain function. They evaluate various cognitive domains like memory, attention, problem-solving, language, and executive function. The results of these tests help the Neuropsychologist understand the nature and extent of cognitive impairments.

⇛ What is the difference between a Neuropsychologist and a Clinical Neuropsychologist?

While both terms refer to specialists in the field of Neuropsychology, a Clinical Neuropsychologist is specifically trained to assess and treat patients in a clinical setting. They work directly with individuals who have neurological conditions, conducting evaluations and providing rehabilitation strategies. A Neuropsychologist, on the other hand, may also engage in research, teaching, or other non-clinical activities.

⇛ Can a Neuropsychologist help with memory problems?

Yes, Neuropsychologists are particularly skilled at diagnosing and treating memory-related issues, especially those caused by conditions like Alzheimer's disease, traumatic brain injury, or stroke. They can perform detailed memory assessments and provide rehabilitation exercises or coping strategies to help manage memory impairments.

⇛ What is the role of neurofeedback in Neuropsychology?

Neurofeedback is a therapeutic technique that trains individuals to regulate their brain activity. In Neuropsychology, Neuropsychologists use neurofeedback to help patients with disorders like anxiety, ADHD, or PTSD. This technique can improve cognitive performance and emotional regulation by teaching patients how to control specific brainwave patterns.

⇛ Do Neuropsychologists work with children?

Yes, Neuropsychologists often work with children, particularly those who have developmental disorders, learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), or brain injuries. They use age-appropriate neuropsychological assessments to evaluate cognitive development and create personalized intervention plans.

⇛ How long does a Neuropsychological assessment take?

The length of a Neuropsychological assessment varies depending on the complexity of the case and the specific tests being administered. Typically, an assessment may take several hours, and follow-up sessions may be required to discuss the results and develop a treatment plan.

⇛ What is the average monthly salary of a Neurological Psychologist?

The average monthly salary of a Neurological Psychologist can vary depending on factors such as location, experience, and the specific healthcare setting they work in. On average, a Neuropsychologist in the United States can earn anywhere between $6,000 to $10,000 per month. Those with more experience or working in specialized or private settings may earn higher salaries. Additionally, positions in academic settings or research can sometimes offer different compensation structures.

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